• Spinal Nerve Root Pain (Radiculopathy) can arise from the problems affecting the:-
  • C4 to T1 nerves in the neck producing Brachalgia in the shoulder and arm.
  • L1 to S1 nerves in the low back, producing Sciatica in the buttock and leg.
  • T2 to T12 nerves in the thoracic spine, producing referred pain in the chest and abdomen.
• Classification of pain in the arm or leg
  • Nerve Root Pain - nerve root irritation / compression is always associated with signs of nerve dysfunction such as pain, tingling, numbness, and weakness. The causes of the irritation are:-
    • Within the spine
      • Annular Tear (small disc tear)
      • Disc Prolapse (herniation)
      • Spinal Stenosis (narrowing of the internal diameter of the spinal canal)
      • Foraminal Stenosis (narrowing of the spinal nerve exit holes)
      • Spondylolisthesis (spinal slip most often seen in the lumbar spine)
      • Epidural Adhesions (following spinal surgery, and infections like epidural abscesses and discitis)
      • Spinal Tumours (rarely Primary tumours of the spine, more commonly secondary cancer spread to the spine)
    • Outside the spine
      • Piriformis Syndrome (Sciatic nerve compression caused by piriformis muscle spasm in the buttock)
      • Thoracic Outlet Syndrome (Cervical nerve compression by a cervical rib / scalene muscle spasm in the neck)
      • Pelvic tumours (Bladder / Rectum / Cervix / Uterus / Ovary)
      • Retroperitoneal tumour (rare)
      • Iliopsoas muscle abscess / tumour (rare)
  • Non-Nerve Root Pain
    • Local Pain
      • Somatic pain arising from joints, muscles, tendons, bones, ligaments in the arm and leg which can be mis-diagnosed as sciatica or brachalgia.
    • Referred Pain from structures other than discs/nerves.
      • Spinal Paravertebral Muscles, Facet Joints, Spinal Ligaments, Shoulder and Hip Muscles, Sacroiliac Joint.
      • The pain is often associated with a vague deep ache in the limb, sometimes mild tingling, but rarely numbness or weakness. It occurs because the affected structure shares the same nerve supply as the part of the limb.
• Treatment
  • Look at the table below and the menu above for appropriate treatment links for different types of nerve root pain. Try Analgesia Flow Chart for analgesia advice.

• Annular Tears are the commonest cause of minor sciatica or brachalgia, and are usually the result of trauma to the spine. Tears can be either radial or circumferential, and their natural history is that they usually spontaneously heal after 6 months. In a small proportion of people, the tears do not heal, and go on to become chronic.
• They occur most commonly at C5/6 and C6/7 in the neck, and at L4/5 and L5/S1 in the low back. See Introduction for the referred pain patterns from these levels.
• Mechanism / annular tears may allow the inflammatory mediator phospholipase A2 (PLA/2) to leak from the center of the disc into the epidural space. Here PLA/2 causes an inflammatory reaction around the adjacent spinal nerve roots (chemical radiculitis). The inflammatory reaction causes referred pain (sciatica or brachalgia), along with nerve root dysfunction (numbness, tingling and minor weakness). It is possible that multiple healed annular tears over time may lead to a disc bulge and eventually a Disc Prolapse requiring decompressive Surgery.
• Clinical examination reveals positive sciatic dural tension signs in the leg (slump test), or in the arm (nerve root provocation test), along with minor numbness and weakness in the territory of a single nerve root. As there is no physical compression of the spinal nerve root, annular tears are not associated with major clinical weakness in the limbs, spinal cord compression, or bladder dysfunction.
• Treatment consists of a series of epidural steroid injections (caudal, lumbar or cervical), or a nerve root block. Topically applied depot steroids (triamcinolone) help to reduce nerve root inflammation, and produce pain relief usually lasting 6 / 8 weeks per injection. Epidurals can produce significant pain relief allowing earlier rehabilitation and recovery. See Epidural Injections and Nerve Root Blocks. Chronic annular tears may be helped by Intra/discal Electro Thermal Annuloplasty (IDET).

• Disc Prolapses are caused by disruption of the posterior annulus, allowing the central nuclear material to prolapse into the epidural space. Depending on the position and size of the prolapse, there may be single or multiple spinal nerve root compression.
• Some central prolapses can cause compression of the spinal cord producing a myelopathy, or compression of the sacral nerve roots producing bladder, bowel and sexual dysfunction. These, and therefore require urgent referral, investigation, and treatment to prevent permanent neurological damage (paralysis).
• Clinical examination - reveals positive dural tension signs in the leg (slump test),  or in the arm (nerve root provocation test), with numbness in the appropriate skin dermatome, and weakness in the appropriate limb muscles. Sacral nerve root compression also causes numbness in the saddle region (perineum) and loss of muscle tone in the anal and bladder sphincters.
• Investigations: the investigation of choice is an MRI scan, which helps to identify which nerves are being irritated or compressed and electrodiagnostic testing to assess for nerve root damage.
  • Lumbar Disc Prolapse
  • Lumbar Disc Prolapse (Axial View)
  • Cervical Disc Prolapse
• Treatment
  • Large disc prolapses which are causing severe leg weakness and / or bladder and bowel dysfunction require an urgent surgical referral for Spinal Decompression. Permanent leg weakness and incontinence can occur when treatment for this problem is delayed.
  • Smaller disc prolapses which are not producing major leg weakness or bladder involvement can be managed conservatively with a series of Epidural Injections and active rehabilitation.

• Spinal Stenosis - means bony narrowing of the internal diameter of the spinal canal at one or several levels in the spine. More common in the lumbar region and is often associated with a small disc bulge and facet joint hypertrophy (overgrowth). It may cause back pain alone or back pain with sciatica.
• Causes - may be Congenital (present at birth), or Degenerative (develops as part of the aging process).
• Symptoms - the sufferer usually gives a very specific history that walking for a certain distance causes either back ache alone OR back ache combined with sciatica, numbness and weakness in the legs (known as spinal claudication).
• Mechanism - walking normally increases oxygen consumption in the lower lumbar spinal nerves, and this requires an increase in blood flow to them i.e. supply equals demand.  In spinal stenosis there is restriction of blood flow and oxygen supply to these nerves, so that during walking demand outstrips supply, As the nerves become progressively starved of oxygen they start to malfunction producing the symptoms of back pain, sciatica, numbness and weakness. Rest temporarily resolves the problem by reducing demand and by allowing supply to catch up.
• Investigations: an MRI scan can reveal the level and the degree of the stenosis and electrodiagnsotic testing may give indications of nerve root compromise.
• Treatment: symptomatic relief of the sciatic component of the pain can sometimes be achieved with a series of Epidural Injections. Soft tissue mobilization and very gentle Manipulation techniques which reduce the degree of lumbar extension can be useful. Surgery is indicated in severe cases, where a surgical decompression can increase the internal diameter of the spinal canal, thereby allowing normal blood flow to the spinal nerves.

• Foraminal Stenosis - means narrowing of one or more nerve exit holes (foramina) in the spine. Commonly found at C5/6 and C6/7 in the neck, and at L3/4, L4/5, and L5/S1 in the low back.
• Symptoms - may be associated with back or neck pain with sciatica or brachalgia. In the lumbar region it may be associated with sciatic pain particularly after standing or walking for prolonged periods, due to settlement in the spine decreasing the diameter of the foramen.
• Mechanism - narrowing causes spinal nerve root irritation with referred pain in the arm or leg.. It is more common in the elderly and is associated with facet joint arthritis, osteophytes (bony spurs), loss of disc height (disc degeneration), and spondylolisthesis (lumbar spinal slip).
• Investigations - an MRI Scan can reveal the level and the degree of the stenosis and electodiagnostic testing can assess for evidence of nerve damage.
• Treatment includes Nerve Root Blocks and Surgery to enlarge the narrowed exit hole.

• Spondylolisthesis means "slip in the spine" and may produce both chronic LBP and sciatica. The front part of the vertebra (back bone) moves forward in relation to the back part of the vertebra, due to a defect or fracture in a part called the "pars inter-articularis" (the part between the joints). This is the only true cause of mis-alignment of the spine, and shows quite clearly on side view x-rays. It most often occurs in the lumbar spine.
• Causes
  • Congenital - present at birth
  • Traumatic - after a serious fall
  • Degenerative - develops as part of the aging process
• Grades of slip
  • Grade I = 25% slip (minor)
  • Grade II = 50% slip (moderate)
  • Grade III = 75% slip (major)
  • Grade IV = 100% slip (very serious)
• Symptoms
  • Chronic backache is may arise from chronic muscle spasm, facet joints irritation , and also from increased tension in the supporting iliolumbar ligaments for the lower two vertebrae. Commonly occurs at the L4/5 and L5/S1.
  • Sciatica is also common in all grades of slip. Nerve root irritation sciatica can occur either due to a prolapsed disc, or due to a pinched nerve (foraminal stenosis) as the nerve passes through the distorted exit holes of the spine. Non-nerve root sciatica can also occur in the form of referred pain from the lower spinal facet joints and spinal ligaments.
• Investigations
  • Lateral X-rays can show the degree of slip, while MRI Scans can show the degree of slip and nerve root compromise and electrodiagnostic testing may be used to assess for nerve damage.
• Treatment
  • Prolotherapy for excessive ligamentous tension
  • Facet Joint Injections for back pain
  • Epidural Injections for nerve root pain
  • Nerve Root Blocks for nerve root pain
  • Surgery in the form of a decompression and fusion of the slipped segment

 **Manipulation** is not recommended for back ache due to spondylolisthesis, as it may worsen the grade of the slip.

• Following spinal surgery, adhesions sometimes form around the lower lumbar spinal nerve roots. These may be the cause of chronic sciatica due to chronic dural irritation.
• The presence of adhesions in the epidural space may prevent epidurally injected drugs (local anaesthetic + steroids) from gaining access to the relevant nerve roots.
• Epiduroscopy may allow the breaking down of these adhesions under direct vision, and may also allow local anaesthetic and steroid to be directly injected around the affected nerve root, improving the success rate.

• Piriformis Syndrome causes compression and irritation of the sciatic nerve in the buttock, and is a cause of buttock pain and sciatica outside the spine.
• Anatomy - the piriformis muscle has it's origin at the side of the sacrum, and inserts on to the posterior part of the greater trochanter of the femur. It's action is external rotation of the leg with the leg straight (e.g. turning your foot out), and abduction of the hip with the hip bent at 90 degrees (e.g. lying on your back with your knees drawn up and legs apart).
• Alternative Anatomy - in 10% of the population the sciatic nerve passes through piriformis instead of under it as normal. Conditions which cause the muscle to become short and contracted increase the nerve compression. Not all cases are due to the nerve passing through the muscle.
• Symptoms - buttock pain is common as well as sciatic symptoms in the leg. In some people the whole sciatic nerve passes through the muscle at one place, and in others the sciatic nerve is in two parts, with each part passing through at a different level. The sciatic component of the pain in the leg can be in the dermatome any of the nerves that go to make up the sciatic nerve i.e. L4, L5, S1, and S2. Both muscles can be short and tight causing a characteristic "10 to 2" walking pattern like Charlie Chaplin.
• Treatment / releasing the contracted piriformis muscle with the combination of Exercises, Acupuncture and Trigger Point Injections may be useful. Surgery may occasionally be necessary where the tendon is released from its attachment to the superior trochanter of the femur.

• See Thoracic Outlet Syndrome

• Other structures can mimic spinal nerve root pain without there being any physical nerve root compression / irritation. The common ones are:-
  • Spinal Paravertebral Muscle Spasm  
    • see Simple Sprain, Postural Backache, Manipulation
  • Spinal Ligaments  
    • see The Bad Sprain, Spinal Ligament Syndrome, Prolotherapy
  • Spinal Facet Joints  
    • see Facet Joint Syndrome, Facet Joint Injections
  • Shoulder and Hip Muscles
    • see Muscle Pain

• Sacroiliac Joint (SIJ) - a synovial joint between the sacrum and the ilium in the pelvis. There are two sacroiliac joints which form a pelvic ring structure together with the sacrum and the two ilium bones. Functionally the ilium is part of and moves with the leg, whereas the sacrum is part of and moves with the spine. The SIJ has a nerve supply from S1 and S2 and can be a cause of non-nerve root sciatica. The joint allows the ilium to rotate 3 - 5 degrees on the sacrum during walking.
• Causes of SIJ pain
• • Referred pain to the SIJ area from another structure in the spine is the most common cause of apparent SIJ pain. Culprits include lumbar facet joints, spinal ligaments, thoraco-lumbar muscle spasm 
  • Posterior SIJ Ligament Sprain caused by lifting injuries, falls onto the legs, and ligament hypermobility (see Prolotherapy)
  • Fractures due to trauma or osteoporosis
  • Infections - may spread to the joint via the blood from other distant sites in the body
  • SIJ Inflammation - may be associated with Ankylosing Spondylitis (HLA B27 positive), psoriatic arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and SARA (Sexually Acquired Reactive Arthritis) caused by a number of infections including chlamydia associated with pelvic inflammatory disease.
  • Tumours - primary SIJ tumours very rare - secondary spread to the SIJ more common
• Symptoms
  • Pain over the back of the SIJ in the pelvis
  • Referred pain to the groin and lower abdomen on the same side as the pain
  • Referred pain down the leg on the same side in the S1 and S2 distribution
  • Pain provoked by movement of the hip  - walking, climbing stairs
  • Marked limp or inability to weight bear
• Diagnosis
  • Positive SIJ spring test on examination - compression, distraction and rotation tests
  • Severe muscle spasm in the low back region may cause an apparent short leg on the same side as the pain
  • X/rays may show SIJ sclerosis, Bone Scans may help to show inflammation but can be unreliable, MRI scans can show inflammation and tumours.
• Treatment
• Infection requires a course of the appropriate antibiotic. A badly damaged joint may remain inflamed or hypermobile after the infection has settled, requiring treatment with an SIJ Support Belt , SIJ Injections or Prolotherapy. Inflammatory conditions may respond to a SIJ Injections with LA/Steroid plus a SIJ Support Belt.
• Sprained SIJ ligaments may respond to Prolotherapy plus a SIJ Support Belt.
• Fractures and tumours require orthopaedic surgical intervention.